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Research Article: Association of vitamin D deficiency with incident depression in patients with hearing impairment: an observational retrospective cohort study

Date Published: 2026-06-10

Abstract:
Hearing impairment is associated with an elevated risk of depression, yet modifiable risk factors in this population remain poorly characterized. Although vitamin D deficiency (VDD) has been linked to depression in general populations, no large-scale study has examined this association among adults with hearing impairment. This retrospective cohort study used the TriNetX Global Collaborative Network. Adults aged ?18 years with hearing impairment who underwent serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D [25(OH)D] testing between 2010 and 2023 were classified into VDD (< 20 ng/ml) and sufficiency (?30 ng/ml) cohorts. Thus, the study population represented a selected healthcare-utilizing cohort with available vitamin D measurements. After propensity score matching (48,184 per group), Cox models estimated hazard ratios (HRs) for incident depression over 12 years using a 1-year landmark design. For the primary outcome, VDD was associated with a significantly higher risk of overall depression ( HR , 1.57; 95% CI , 1.51–1.64; P < 0.001). For secondary outcomes, significant associations were observed for depressive episode ( HR , 1.60), recurrent depression ( HR , 1.62), suicidal behavior/self-harm ( HR , 1.47), and all-cause mortality ( HR , 1.40; all P < 0.001). The associations remained robust across sensitivity analyses ( HRs , 1.55–1.65). Subgroup analyses showed consistent associations across sex, age, and comorbidity strata, with significant effect modification by age, obesity, and chronic pain. Vitamin D insufficiency (20.0–29.9 ng/ml) showed a smaller but significant association ( HR , 1.37), consistent with an exposure-gradient pattern across predefined vitamin D categories. The negative control outcome (acute appendicitis) was non-significant ( P = 0.267). VDD was associated with increased long-term depression risk among adults with hearing impairment who underwent serum 25(OH)D testing. Vitamin D status may represent a potential risk marker for depression in this selected healthcare-utilizing population; however, the observational design does not establish that vitamin D correction reduces depression risk.

Introduction:
Hearing impairment is associated with an elevated risk of depression, yet modifiable risk factors in this population remain poorly characterized. Although vitamin D deficiency (VDD) has been linked to depression in general populations, no large-scale study has examined this association among adults with hearing impairment.

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